MAHAKAVYAS (MAJOR COURT EPICS) IN SANSKRIT PART I

Dandin defines Mahakavya in the following manner: ‘saga-banQaao mahakavyaM ]cyato tsya laxaNama\’ "Sargabandho mahaakaavyam Uchyathe thasya Lakshanam".  Any poetical composition which is well knit in chapters is called a MahaKavya. The plot of Mahakavyas can be taken from Puranas and other good sources. It can also be based on the political and social problems. It should have the description of the cities, mountains, rivers, the sunrise, moonrise, sunset, moonset, the seasons, playing in the parks, water sports, drinking bouts, sexual dalliance, kidnapping, rescuing, war, battlefield etc. In Sanskrit there are numerous Mahakavyas, some of which have been published and many still lay in the form of manuscripts. Among the popular ones are the Five Mahakavyas which are traditionally studied. They are Kalidasa’s ‘rGauvaMSama\’ (Raghuvamsam) and ‘kumaarsaMBavama\’ (Kumarasambhavam), Bharavi’s ‘ikratajau-naIyama\’ (Kiratarjuniyam), Magha’s ‘iSaSaupalavaQama\’ (Sishupalavadham) and Sri Harsha’s ‘naOYaQaIyacairtma\’  (Naishadhiyacaritam).

            Kalidasa’s lyrics ‘?tusaMharma\’ (Ritusamharam) and ‘maoGasandoSama\’ (Meghasandesam), two Mahakavyas ‘rGauvaMSama\’ (Raghuvamsam) and ‘kumaarsaMBavama\’ (Kumarasambhavam) and three plays ‘maalaivakaignaima~ma\’ (Malavikagnimitram), ‘ivaËmaaova-SaIyama\’ (Vikramorvasiyam) and ‘AiBa&anaSaakuntlama\’ (Abhij`nanasakuntalam) constitute the authentic works of Kalidasa. There are others which are spurious but attributed to Kalidasa.

‘kumaarsaMBavama\’  (Kumarasambhavam):

            ‘kumaarsaMBavama\’ is a Mahakavyam which describes the birth of Kartikeya and the preceding events that led to it. The poem is available now in 17 cantos. But only the first 8 cantos are recognised as genuine. The rest of the poem is held to be post-Kalidasa. The reason for the abrupt ending of the commentary of Mallinatha at the completion of the 8^th canto is given as the poet’s violation in describing the sexual dalliance of Parvati and Shiva. This noted commentator hence felt that the latter 9 cantos had not been described as the title proposes. It stops with the description of the wedding and the joy of the divine couple. The style, the language and the use of similes for which Kalidasa is well known, talk in favour of Kalidasa with respect to the latter 9 cantos. The importance of the poem lies in the aesthetical values of description and in the depth of sensuous emotions. The description of the mount Himalayas, the description of the spring season, the lamentation of Rati, custom and practices with regard to a Hindu marriage and the philosophical expositions found in the 2^nd and the 7^th cantos are the fine specimens for the poet’s knowledge and imagination.

‘rGauvaMSama\’ (Raghuvamsam)

            Raghuvamsam is said to be the most perfect work of Kalidasa. the poem is now available in19 cantos. Kalidasa has tried in this the description of the glories of the Kings of Solar Race. It is not a continuous account of all Kings of this race. The poet confines himself to some Kings like ‘idlaIp:’ ‘rGau:’ ‘Aja:’ ‘dSarqa:’ ‘rama:’ and some of his successors. Lamentation over the death of Aja’s wife Indumati in the 8^th canto has become a classic of its own. This in a way is complementary to the lamentation of Rati ³ritivalaap´ of Kumarasambhavam. Here he devotes more number of cantos to the description of Rama’s story. This has become a beautiful abridgement of Ramayana. After describing the successor of Rama the 19^th canto ends abruptly with the death of Agnivarna ³AignavaNa-:´. The style of Raghuvamsa is dignified. Kalidasa shows in this work the mastery over the art of writing similes. This work of Kalidasa has apt and striking similes and has been rightly considered as the best Mahakavya.

‘Baariva:’ (Bharavi):

         Bharavi’s name is mentioned along with the name of Kalidasa in the Aihole ³eohaolao´ inscription dated 634 A.D. Hence Bharavi’s date cannot be brought down below this date. Bharavi’s poem ‘ikrataja-naIyama\’ (Kiratarjuniyam) is a Mahakavya in 18 cantos. The name Bharavi is not real name of the poet. This must have been a title given to him by his patron King. But unfortunately we do not have any information about his life except an incredible story.

            Kiratarjuniyam describes the story of Arjuna’s acquiring Pashupatastra - ‘paSauptas~’ from Lord Shiva, who coming in the disguise of a hunter - ‘ikrat:’ tested the strength and ability of Arjuna in an encounter. This incident is briefly narrated in Vana Parva of Mahabharatam. Bharavi has transformed it into a beautiful Mahakavya by graphic and elaborate descriptions on statecraft and politics in a vigorous style quite appropriate to the heroic sentiment of the Kavyam.

            From Bharavi onwards the style of Mahakavyam became more elaborate and artificial. The natural and simple style of Kalidasa and other early poets gave way to verbal tricks and subtle expressions. Bharavi is famous for his dignified thought expressed in crisp and vigorous style - ‘Baarvao: Aqa-gaaOrvama\’. The famous example of ‘Aqa-gaaOrvama\’ can be found in the following verse:

‘sahsaa ivadQaIt na iËyaaM Aivavaok: prmaapdaM pdma\.

   vaRNauto ih ivamaRSyakairNaM gauNalaubQaa: svayamaova saMpd:..’

 ‘maaGa:’ (Magha):

‘maaGa:’ is the son of ‘d<ak:’ (Dattaka). He is the author of the Mahakavya called ‘iSaSaupalavaQama\’ (Sishupalavadham) consisting of 20 cantos. It describes the killing of iSaSaupala by Lord Krishna. Magha belongs to the beginning of 8^th century A.D. A simple incident from the Mahabharatam where Lord Krishna kills iSaSaupala: at Yudhishthira’s Rajasuya sacrifice has been taken by Magha and developed into a great epic like Bharavi. Magha also introduced a discussion on the state policy in the second canto. Dandin’s definition of Mahakavyam strictly applies to this work. Magha excels Bharavi in the artificiality of his time. He imitates Bharavi in many respects and he is admired for his delightful style, profound thoughts and beautiful similes.      

‘]pmaa kailadasasya Baarvao: Aqa-gaaOrvama\.diNDna: pdlaaila%yaM maaGao saint ~yaao gauNaa:..’

‘Kalidasa excels in his similes, Bharavi excels in depth of ideas, Dandin excels in his lucidity of words and Magha excels in all the three qualities’.

            Magha’s vocabulary is very vast and his knowledge in grammar is deep. It is said if any one studies 9 cantos of Magha there will be no words new to him ‘navasaga-gato maaGao navaSabdao na ivaVto’. The toughness of his style can be inferred from the following remarks made by the great commentator Mallinatha. ‘maaGao maoGao gatM vaya:’ - One may have to spend one’s life time to understand Magha’s ‘iSaSaupalavaQama\’ (Sishupalavadham) and Kalidasa’s Meghadutam.

 ‘EaIhYa-: (Sri Harsha):

‘EaIhYa-:, the son of Heera and Mamalladeva, is the author of the Mahakavyam ‘naOYaQaIyacairtma\’  (Naishadhiyacaritam). Sri Harsha was patronised by Vijayachandra and Jayachandra of Kanauj in the latter half of the 12^th C.A.D. ‘naOYaQaIyacairtma\’  (Naishadhiyacaritam) is said to have been written in 60 cantos, but only 22 cantos are now available. The story of this Mahakavya is taken from Nalopakhyanam of Mahabharatam. In the original the story is narrated in a simple and beautiful style. Sri Harsha has developed it into a great epic in a rough style which requires the help of commentators to understand the meaning. Being a scholar of various Sastras, Sri Harsha has embellished his works by drawing similes and topics from various Satras on different terms of philosophy. Hence his work is considered to be a feast for scholars. It is a brain tonic for a learner and a touchstone for scholars in Sanskrit ‘naOYaQaM ivaWdaOYaQama\’.

KALIDASA THE GREAT POET IN SANSKRIT

 

            The classical Sanskrit literature begins more or less with Kalidasa. It is an irony that practically very little is known about the life and date of the greatest of Sanskrit poets namely Kalidasa. Numerous theories have been presented on his date based on certain internal and external evidences. But there are so many contradictory details that many of these theories prove to be unconvincing.

1.   The Korur theory:

Alberuni of 11^th century A.D. records in his travelogue a battle at Korur where one ‘ivaËmaaid%ya’ (Vikramaditya) defeated the ‘mlaocC’ s – Mlecchas (foreigners). The tradition says that Kalidasa lived in the court of King ‘ivaËmaaid%ya’ (Vikramaditya). This battle took place in 544 A.D. and to commemorate it an era called ‘ivaËmaSakabd’ (Vikrama Sakabda) was founded by Vikramaditya and dated back by 600 years. Hence the Vikrama starts from 56 B.C. The theory says that Kalidasa might have lived in the court of Vikramaditya. According to this theory, Kalidasa could have lived about 544 A.D. This theory has been propounded by Prof.Fergusson. But it has been disproved by the discovery of the Mandasor inscription dated as early as 484 A.D. which clearly mentions the era in question.

2.   Nine gems theory:

This was propounded by Scholar named Dr.Kern on the basis of the traditional association of Kalidasa with a King called Vikramaditya. There is a traditional verse which talks about the nine poets who ornamented the court of Vikramaditya.

'Qanvantir xapNak AmarisaMh SaMku vaotalaBa+ GaTkp-r kailadasaa:.

    #yaatao varahimaihrao naRpto: saBaayaaM r%naaina vaO varÉicana-va ivaËmasya..’

This verse refers to the fact that Dhanvantari, Kshhapanaka etc. were the nine gems in the court of King Vikramaditya. A Buddhist shrine at Bodhgaya was constructed by one 'Amardova:’ (Amaradeva). This is not referred to by Fahein, the Chinese traveller, who was in India in 414 A.D. But another Chinese traveller by name Huien Tsang who came to India in 642 A.D. makes clear reference to this temple. The author of this theory had identified the builder of this temple 'Amardova’ with 'AmarisaMh’ (Amarasimha) and with the help of traditional contemporaneity of 'AmarisaMh’ with Kaidasa, he places Kalidasa somewhere in the 6^th century A.D. and to prove this, he also calculated an astronomical grounds the death of 'varahimaihr:’ (Varahamihira), the astronomer, to have occurred in 587 A.D. This theory gets exploded because of the poor identification 'Amardova’ with 'AmarisaMh’ the lexicographer.

      

3.   Renaissance theory:

Prof.Maxmuller is the author of this theory. He holds that the Vedic age and the first phase of Sanskrit literature ended with the 1^st century B.C. Then as a result of frequent foreign invasions, there was a long interval of literary inactivity. The first five centuries of the Christian era formed a dark age in the history of Sanskrit literature. Then there was a revival in all branches of learning in the reign of King ‘ivaËmaaid%ya’ (Vikramaditya) of the 6^th century A.D. which can be considered as the golden age of court poetry. Kalidasa was the leader of this renaissance and so he must have lived in the 6^th century A.D. This theory is not feasible for the Gupta age is considered as the golden age in the Indian history and no one can assume any literary inactivity during that period.

 

 

4.     Traditional theory:

            The theory which is consistent with the Indian tradition and which is upheld by most of the Indian scholars and by Sir William Jones among those of the western scholars is the one which assigns Kalidasa to the 1^st century B.C. The patron of Kalidasa is identified with Vikramaditya in whose commemoration the famous Vikrama Era was started in 56 B.C. He is the actual King Vikramaditya who bore the name, whereas many other kings of later age only bore such a title. The argument for dismissing the fame of Vikramaditya of 1^st B.C. as a purely legendary figure is not convincing. The prescription of death penalty for the crime of theft and the denial of the right of inheriting the husband’s property to the widow which are in the drama ‘AiBa&anaSaakuntlama\’ clearly points to an age before the beginning of the Christian era when the ‘smaRit’s (Smrtis) supporting those customs were in vogue.

            The similarity in style and thought between Asvaghsha - ‘ASvaGaaoYa’, who is a Buddhist and a philosopher in main and a poet by the way, and Kalidasa who was solely a poet and a dramatist of established fame only led to this conclusion that Asvaghosha followed Kalidasa as a model and not vice versa.

            Still others have assigned Kalidasa to the 2^nd Century B.C. and have argued that he must have been a contemporary of King Agnimitra of the Shunga dynasty whom the poet has immortalised in the play ‘maalaivakaignaima~ma\’ (Malavikagnimitram). There are other theories built on very slender or fictitious grounds. The author of a work called Bhojaprabandha makes Kalidasa a court poet of King Bhoja of Dhara. This theory is absurd on the face of it. First  because it brings Kalidasa down to 11^th C.A.D. a date too improbable in the light of earlier reference to the poet and second because it groups under the patronage of the same king authors of different periods like Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Dandin etc.

            A theory that has been generally accepted by the western scholars of research is the one that holds Kalidasa to have lived in the glorious age of imperial Guptas. Dr.A.B.Keith places him in the age of Chandragupta the Second of Ujjain who ruled upto 413A.D. and bore the title of Vikramaditya. In support of this theory it is said that the play called ‘ivaËmaaova-SaIyama\’ (Vikramorvasiyam) was so named in honour of the patron who was known as Vikramaditya. Samudragupta, the father of Chandragupta the Second performed a horse sacrifice. As it was a memorable incident witnessed after a long interval, it has been alluded to by Kalidasa in his drama Malavikagnimitram. Kumarasambhavam was so named in order to commemorate the birth of prince Kumaragupta. It was Chandragupta the Second that brought Ujjain under the Gupta rule and this accounts for the poet’s rapturous references to this city in his poems. Therefore the period of the poet must be somewhere in the beginning of the 5^th A.D. for, Chandragupta the Second ruled fron 380 A.D. to 413 A.D.

Popularity of Ramayanam

   Ramayanam has become a popular book at the hands of all the people of India high and low, Prince and peasants, Noble men and artisans. All of them are quite familiar with the characters and the story of this great epic. It is held in great esteem by the Hindus. It is used for daily recitation by the pious. The following are the causes for its popularity.

(1)     The concept of AVATAAR ‘Avatar’ has gone into the minds of all Hindus and its roots are strengthened by the faiths and beliefs in the historicity of the concept of AVATAAR ‘Avatar’ of Rama and Krishna. In this regard Ramayanam accounts for the character of Rama which is cherished by everyone as a model.

(2)     Style:

The style of Valmiki is simple, dignified and polished. It does not contain any word of rare occurrence. It is also free from the use of long compounds which are a familiar sight in the other later day Kavyas. The following verse will show how simple and dignified is Valmiki "Vaahi vaatha yathah kaanthaam thaam sprushtvaa maamapi sprusa l Thvayi me gaathrasamsparsas chandhre drushti-samaagamaha ll" ‘vaaih vaat yat: kanta taM spRYT\vaa maamaip spRSa.%vaiya mao gaa~saMspSa-: cand`o dRiYT samaagama:..’

(3)     Use of Alankaras (figures of speech):

The simplicity of the style is heightened by the use of the figures of speech like Upamaa, Roopakam, Svabhaavokthi ‘]pmaa ÉpkM svaBaavaaoi> etc. which are commonly used and other similar figures of speech have also been used to perfection by Valmiki. All sentiments find their legitimate share. The language which has an inexplicable effect on the hearer is also a reason for its popularity.

(4)     Power of characterisation:

The author has a remarkable insight into the workings of the human mind and it is revealed in the vivid portrayal of characters. The success in this epic is to a large extent due to the golden opportunity given to Valmiki by the life of Rama. Rama’s role as a dutiful son, a loyal husband, an affectionate brother, a devoted friend and a responsible King has been cut to perfection. The uncompromising nature of Rama, the fidelity of Sita, the pangs of separation of the couple Rama and Sita, the unity of monkeys and host of other things had been delineated in a most ideal manner. The characters of Rama and Sita have been described as models for the human beings.

(5)     Power of description:

Equally unique is Valmiki’s power of description. Modern Sanskrit poetry contains very few descriptions of the kind which are seen in Ramayanam. In this connection we may cite the description of the winter in the AaranyaKaanda ‘AarNyakaND’ and the rainy season in KishkindhaaKaanda ‘ikiYknQaakaND’ etc.

        He is almost unsurpassed in the description of the sentiment of Pathos. At the same time he has              described all other sentiments like heroism, humour, love and wonder. His descriptions of the                  forest, hermitage, palaces, battle, gardens, men, towns and men’s behaviour are realistic.                          Innumerable are the wise sayings which filled this epic. They all teach men the path to spiritual              and material progress. The epic is responsible for moulding the character of our country. Since                Valmiki’s description of administrative capacities of Rama, the word Ramarajyam ‘ramarajyama\’ has              come to mean the rule of Rama. Its influences on the later literature are also enomous. Valmiki                himself says, "Param kaveenaam aadhaaram puraa vaalmeekinaa krutham", ‘prM kvaInaamaaQaarM pura          vaalmaIiknaa Ìtma\’. ‘This is one of the supreme sources of the poets’.            The Ramayanam is called         Adikavyam and Valmiki is called Adikavi.

GADYA-SAAHITYAANI - PROSE LITERATURE IN SANSKRIT

 

Prose is called GADYAM ‘gaVma\’ . Its difference from poetry is in it not having metrical lines. It is defined by Dandin as APAADAF PADASANTHAANO GADYAM = ‘Apad: pdsantanaao gaVma\’. The history of prose literature can be traced to the Brahmana portions of Yajur Veda. The Upanishads also contain prose. The best specimen of prose of pre-classical age is seen in the commentary ‘mahaBaaYyama\’ (Mahabhashyam) of ‘ptHjaila:’ (Patanjali), a commentary of Panini’s ‘AYzaQyaayaI’ (Ashthadhyayi). There have been some 20 odd prose passages seen in the text of Mahabharatam. Later in the ‘saU~’ (Sutra) literature a tradition of writing commentaries in prose is witnessed. In the classical age the poets wrote most of their works only in the poetical form. It was not easy for them to compose the prose work. Hence the saying "Gadyam kaveenaam nikasham vadanthi" ‘gaVM kvaInaaM inakYaM vadint’. Prose is the touchstone of the poets. Very few writers have attempted to write a prose work.

‘baaNa:’ - (Bana):

‘baaNa:’ is the earliest prose writer. He is the writer of ‘hYa-cairtma\’ (Harshacaritam) and ‘kadmbarI’ (Kadambari). He was a court poet of King ‘hYa-:’ (Harsha). He belongs to the first half of the 7^th Century A.D. It is learnt from ‘hYa-cairtma\’ (Harshacaritam) that Bana was the son of ‘ica~Baanau:’ (Chitrabhanu) of  ‘EaIva%sagaao~ma\’ (Srivatsagotram). He lost his parents at a very early age and after his education he gained much wisdom and experience by wandering throughout the country in the company of his friends. After his return to his village he wrote ‘hYa-cairtma\’ (Harshacaritam) partly autobiographical and partly biographical.

          Of the two prose works of Bana, ‘hYa-cairtma\’ (Harshacaritam) must have been the earlier composition. It has eight chapters. Having given an account of himself Bana traces Harshavardhana’s ancestry to a King called Prabhakaravardhana. He then deals with the life of Prabhakaravardhana and his two sons Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana and his daughter Rajyashri. The work abruptly ends with Harshavardhana placing his widowed sister under the care of a Buddhist monk and leaving the place to wreak vengeance against the King of Gowdas, the killer of his brother. What made Bana desist from proceeding further from the story is not known. Death would not have been responsible for this as the other work Kadambari is found to be later production. This abrupt ending may be because of Harsha’s leanings to Buddhism was not tolerated by Bana or the defeat inflicted on his patron by Pulakesin II, was not desired to be recorded. Bana must have referred to this if he had completed the work. This is only a conjecture not supported by any external evidences.

          Kadambari is a romance treating the life of two couples namely Kadambari and Chandrapida and Mahasvetha and Pundarika. As a literary work, Kadambari is superior to Harshacharitham. On Kadambari in particular, Bana has spent all his wealth of observation and fullness of imagery. Through his work is based on Brhatkatha by Gunadhya, the author has a full scope to display his talent. Bana’s style is referred to as ‘paHcaalaI’ (Panchali) style. He exhibits great skill in characterisation. He has used to perfection not only the well known figures of speech like ‘]pmaa’ (Upama), ‘$pkma\’ (Rupakam), ‘]%p`oxaa’ (Uthpreksha) etc., but also difficult ones like ‘ivaraoQaaBaasa:’ ( Virodhabasa), ‘Aaxaop:’ (Akshepa), ‘vaËaoi>:’ (Vakrokti), etc.

          The Western scholars have criticised Bana’s style in the following manner :-

“Bana’s prose is an Indian wood where the undergrowth must be cut away to render the passage possible and even then wild beasts in the form of unknown words lie in wait for a stranger”. But for traditional Pundits who have acquired a good grounding in Sanskrit language have appreciated in the following manner.

‘baaNaaoicCYTM jaga%sava-M’‘kadmbarIrsa&anaaM Aaharao|ip na raocato’

Not only the works of Bana are very popular as the best compositions but have also eclipsed the prose works written prior to him like Harshacharitham. Kadambari is also an incomplete work. It was completed by his son ‘BaUYaNabaaNa:’ (Bhushanabana).

‘diNDna\’(Dandin) :

         He is the author of ‘dSakumaarcairtma\’ (Dasakumarachariham). He is said to have lived in Kanchipuram. The date of Dandin is yet an open question. The Pundits have tried to fix his date in the 7^th century AD. He is known for his excellent use and placement of words – ‘diNDna: pdlaaila%yama\’. He is also credited with the works of ‘kavyadSa-:’ (Kavyadarsha) and ‘CndaoivaicatI’ (Chandovichiti). The Dasakumaracharitham as we have it, is incomplete. It deals with the stories of 10 princes. Prince ‘rajavaahna:’ (Rajavahana), the hero of the story is the son of the King ‘rajahMsa:’ (Rajahamsa) of Magadha and he is born during his parents’ life in the forest. Two other princes ‘Apharvama-‘ (Apaharavarma) and ‘]pharvama-‘ (Upaharavarma) and seven other young lads who were the sons of three ministers overthrown by the King of Magadha constitute the group of 10 princes born under the shadow of misfortune. They came together by accident and later started in quest of their fortune. On the way Rajavahana parts from his friends and follows a Brahmin who seeks his help to ‘patalalaaok:’ (Pathalaloka). The other 9 princes left behind, wandered in different directions in search of their lost leader. Each one of them after meeting Rajavahana after many years narrates the romantic experiences of his adventure during his wanderings. Such is the structural outline of ‘dSakumaarcairtma\’.

          The main body of ‘dSakumaarcairtma\’ narrates the story of 8 princes but it has a ‘pUva-pIizka’ (Poorvapitika) and ‘]<arpIizka’ (Uttarapitika) both attached to the beginning and the end respectively of the main body. But the events described in these two do not seem to be genuine portions of ‘dSakumaarcairtma\’. But generally speaking the episodes depicted in this work reflect a complex state of society with vulgar and indecorous thieves and ardent lovers abound in the course of the narrative. Language has been simple and graceful. His skill in carrying quick and unimpeded narration, his varied and powerful characterisation marked the qualities of a great work.

NOTE: ‘AvantIsaundrIkqaa’ (Avanthisundarikatha)- This is another prose romance attributed to Dandin. It is presently available only in fragments. The author narrates in it the story which is almost identical with that of the ‘pUva-pIizka’ of ‘dSakumaarcairtma\’. The repetition of the narrative makes it impossible that Dandin wrote both. Moreover it mentions in its preface Bana, Subandhu and Mayura as earlier poets. If that is so Bana must be earlier to Dandin which is not the case. Hence the work must be assigned to some other poet of the 7^th or 8^th century AD.

'saubanQau:’(Subandhu):

          He is the author of ‘vaasavad<aa’ (Vasavadatta) a prose romance dealing with the story of the heroine of that name. Bana pays high tributes to Vasavadatta in his Harshacharitham. This helps us to decide that Subandhu could not have been later to Bana. The story in Vasavadatta is quite different from the popular story of the heroine of that name who figures in the tales of ‘]dyana:’ (Udayana) or ‘va%saraja:’ (Vatsaraja). The hero ‘kndp-kotu:’ (Kandarpaketu) and the heroine dream of each other’s beauty. Meeting with great difficulty they elope together to the Vindhya mountains with the help of a magic horse. Soon Vasavadatta is transformed into a stone for her intrusion into the peaceful garden of an ascetic. After a long search the casual touché of the lover’s hand brings her back to life and they marry.

The style of Subandhu is called as ‘gaaODI’ (Gaudi) type which reveals in extraordinary puns and long compounds. His vocabulary is vast and abounds in words of double meanings. This often confounds and tires the reader. It tests the patience of the reader and so his style evoked the usual denunciation of all western critics.