GOLDEN AGE OF SANSKRIT IN SOUTH INDIA

          After the Nayak’s period, in South India, then came the Maratha’s rule of Sahaji when Tanjore and its surroundings were buzzing with activity in many fields of learning, which activity was maintained by Sahaji’s successors as well.  For nearly a century and a quarter (1675-1800 A.D.) the politically dependent Tanjore held intellectual hegemony over South India.

          Sahaji was only twelve years old when he ascended the throne in 1684 A.D. and had a glorious rule of Tanjore for nearly twenty-eight years.  He was himself a scholar with a great achievement through the knowledge of six languages Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada.

          According to a grant-deed in Marathi, Sahaji gathered as many as forty-five scholars drawn from various parts of the country and settled them in Sahajirajapuram (the present Tiruvisanallur, Tanjore Dist.) Ramabhadra Dikshita was one among them.  Being a protégé of Sahaji, Ramabhadra Dikshita complimented by enlisting the most lovable qualities of his patron Sahaji that “the Bhoja of the eighteenth century”.  He was the author of many literary works among them, PatanjaliCaritam a Mahakavyam in 8 cantos, a minor-play named SrngaraTilakaBhana, a play titled JanakiParinayam in 7 Acts, and praise worthy technical works titled SabdaBhedaNirupanam, UnadiManiDipika and ShadDarsaniSiddhantaSangraham.  Ramabhadra Dikshita has carved for himself a place of honour among the later Sanskrit writers of South India through his multi-faceted genius.

          There is no branch of human knowledge that has not been dealt with in Sanskrit Literature.  The knowledge and culture of a highly civilised and intellectually advanced people inhabiting a vast country from 3000 B.C to about this 21^st century A.D., has been recorded in this language which is rich and well-developed to express any idea in any branch of learning in clear terms.  We can feel proud of getting birth and living in this most virtuous our own country which was appreciated by the saints-  

“Uttharam yath samudrasya Himadhreschaiva dhakshinam

Varsham thath Bharatham naama Bharathi yathra Santhathih”

The country that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountain is called Bharatham; there dwell the descendants of Bharatha.

By today Blogchatter's campaign #WriteAPageADay comes to an end. For this I have written 29 blogpost under the theme SANSKRIT IN INDIAN HISTORY, which you can read in my blog under the label #WriteAPageADay2024.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF MUGHALS

 

          In the wake of Mughal invasions, the political relations between the newcomers and the indigenous bounded to be influenced mutually.  The Hindu and the Muslim communities came to imbibe each other’s thoughts and customs.  It was out of the desire for mutual understanding that Hindu (Sanskrrit) religions literature was studied and translated or summarized in the Muslim courts like those of Zain-ul-Abidin in Kashmir and Husain Shah in Bengal. 

Muslim courts and Muslim preachers and saints were attracted to the study of Hindu philosophy like Yoga, Vedanta and the sciences of medicines and astrology.  The growth of Urdu, of the mingling “out of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and ideas with languages and concepts of Sanskrit origin, is a proof of the linguistic synthesis of the Hindus and the Muslims”.

          The Mughal rulers of India were patrons of education.  Shah Jahan, though more interested in magnificent building, was highly educated in his early youth in Turki.  He founded one college at Delhi and repaired the college named Dar-Ul-Baqa (Abode of Eternity).  In Dara Shukoh the Mughal imperial family possessed one of the greatest scholars that India has ever produced.  Well versed in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit, he was the author of some famous works, including Persian translations of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Yoga Vasishtha Ramayana.

          Jagannatha Pandita (1590-1665 A.D), a protégé of Shah Jahan, is the author of five lyrics namely SudhaLahari, AmrtaLahari, LakshmiLahari, KarunaLahari and GangaLahari.  The SudhaLahari has thirty stanzas in praise of the sun, AmrtaLahari ten stanzas praising the river Yamuna, LakshmiLahari forty one stanzas in praise of Lakshmi, KarunaLahari which is also known as VishnuLahari sixty stanzas in praise of Vishnu, and GangaLahari which is also known as PiyushaLahari fifty two stanzas in praise of the river Ganga.

          Apart from these works, Jagannatha Pandita  authored a combined Gnomic and didactic poetry titled BhaminiVilasam contains four parts dealing with Anyokti, Srngara, Karunya, and Santi in 101, 100, 19, and 32 stanzas respectively in memory of his wife Bhamini. 

          Moreover, Jagannatha Pandita acquired high reputation through the RasaGangadharam which is standard work on Alankaras.  His sense of judgement becomes clear from his definition of poetry expressed in the line “Ramaneeyaarthaf prathipaadhakas sabdhaha means, a word that expresses a beautiful meaning”.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF NAYAK KINGS

          The Nayak kings of Vijayanagar, captured South India by defeating Pandyas and Cholas, ruled by possessing Tanjore as their capital, from 1535 to 1673 A.D., were zealous custodians of Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Hindu art and culture.  For nearly three centuries, in spite of occasional disturbances to the peace of country, these ruler provided a congenial climate for more than 1250 scholars to pour forth their literary output.

          The great Appayya Dikshita, author of more than 100 works flourished in the 16^th Century A.D.  Among the Nayak Kings, Raghunatha Nayak, a scholarly ruler of 1614 to 1633 A.D., who wrote many works on music and literature, his learned Queen Ramabhadramba, the authoress of Raghunathabhyudayam, Madhuravani, a court-poetess who rendered Andhra Ramayanam in Sanskrit verse, Govinda Dikshita the able minister and the author of SahithyaSudha and his son VenkataMakhin the musicologist, were notable literary personalities who formed a good set during the early part of the 16^th A.D.

          RatnaKheta Dikshita the author of an allegorical play titled Bhavana-Purushottamam and more than 75 works, and his son RajaChoodamani Dikshita who was the author of more than 25 works on different genre in Sanskrit, among them Mahakavyas like RukminiKalyanam, Raghava-Yadava-Pandaviyam, KavyaDarpanam, a play AnandaRaghavam were the prominent literary works.

          After their period, in the early 17^th A.D., Tirumala Nayaka became the successor of Nayak kings who ruled the South India through the capital city Madurai.  He has patronised many poets among them Mahakavi Nilakantha Dikshita was a praise worthy.  He was reputed as author of 17 works, notable among them are two major poems Siva-Lilarnavam and Gangavataranam, A campu titled Nilakantha-Vijaya-Campu, a play Nala-Caritam, devotional lyrics Aananda-Sagara-Stavam and Santi-Vilasam and Satiric poems titled Kali-Vidambanam and Sabha-Ranjana-Satakam. 

GOLDEN AGE OF SANSKRIT IN DHARA

          Bhoja was a king who became renowned as Sanskrit scholar.  It is believed that he lived from 1018 to 1054 A.D.  His capital city was Dhara.  Bhoja is credited with the authorship of many scholarly books in the field of different branches of Sanskrit.

          Among the works of Bhoja, SarasvatiKanthabharanam is a compendious volume in five chapters dealing with the merits and defects of poetry, figures of speech etc.  This work reveals the scholarship of Bhoja.  SrngaraPrakasah is work on poetics established Srngara=love as the best of the sentiments.  CampuRamayanam is a Campu contains prose and poetry.  The king Bhoja narrated the story of Ramayanam upto SundaraKandam, by following the original of Valmiki very closely.  Later its YuddhaKandam was completed by the great poet Sri Lakshmana Suri in the 19^th A.D.

          NamaTalika a lexicographical treatise, Sabdanusasanam on Grammar, SamaranganaSutraDharam on Architecture, Aurveda-Sarvasvam on medicine, RajaMrgankam on Astrology etc were the other famous works of the scholarly king Bhoja.

          After his period, the king those who were followed the same style of this great king Bhoja, in composing Sanskrit works, ruling the kingdom, protecting the people, KrishnadevaRaya was called as AndhraBhoja.  Later, Maratha King by name Sahaji I of Tanjore was called BhosalanvayaBhoja in the 18^th century A.D. 

SANSKRIT IN THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE Part III

          It is to be noted that in the 14^th A.D., a poet named Lolambaraja was patronized by Haaihara I, composed a court epic titled HariVilasa in 5 cantos which describes the story of the Lord Krishna.

After the period Harihara I and Bukka I, the king Kampana, the second son of Bukka I was the Emperor of Vijayanagar in 1343 to 1379 A.D.  His wife the Queen GangaDevi was credited with the authorship of a poem MathuraVijayam also called ViraKampa-RayaCaritam with 7 cantos.  Kampana’s expedition to the South India and his slaying the ruler of Madurai are vividly described in this work.

        Later, in the beginning of the 16^th Century A.D., the poetess named Tirumalamba, the wife and 

Queen of AcyutaRaya of Vijayanagar, composed a Campu-Kavya titled Varadambika      

Parinaya   Campu.  In this, she described her husband’s marriage with a princess Varadambika.  

This campu is written in fine and attractive style and rarely exhibits the skill of the authoress in the 

use of figurative device called Bhangaslesha.

SANSKRIT IN THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE - Part II

          The reign of Krishnadeva Raya not only marked the climax in the territorial expansion of the Vijanagar Empire, but was also remarkable for the encouragement and development of art and letters.  He wrote his magnum opus AmuktaMalyada, in Telugu JambhavatiParinayam and other four works in Sanskrit.  In his court flourished the “Ashta-Dig-gajas”, or the eight elephants (famous poets) who supported the world of Telugu literature. 

Works on music, dancing, drama, grammar, logic, philosophy etc., received encouragement from the emperor and his ministers.  He was the embodiment of catholicity because he was the only king who allowed such freedom that every man may come and go and live according to his own creed without suffering any annoyance, and without enquiry, whether he may be a Vaishnavite, Saivite, Buddhist, Jain, Muslim, Christian, Jew or Moor.

Ramadeva Raya, son-in-law of Krishnadeva Raya who has written unknown treatise on music and the poet Lakshminarayana wrote Sangita-suryodayam under the auspices of Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1530 A.D.)

After the poet Rajanatha II who had the title Dindima-Kavi-Sarvabhauma under the Vijayanagar kings, celebrated, about 1430 A.D., wrote Saluvabhyudayam in 13 cantos, the achievements of Saluva Narasimha who enthroned as the Emperor of Vijayanagar, his grandson Rajanatha III described about 1540 A.D., the exploits of King Acyuta Raya, brother of Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar (1530-1544 A.D.), who became a king of Vijayanagar after the death of Krishnadeva Raya, in the Acyutarayabhyudayam containing 20 cantos. 

SANSKRIT IN THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE - PART I

The Vijayanagar Empire has to its credit brilliant cultural and artistic achievements.  The Emperors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada, and under their fostering care some of the finest pieces of literature were produced.  Sayana, the famous commentator of the Vedas, and his brother Madhava Vidyaranya flourished during the early days of Vijayanagar rule, who composed Pancadasi later.

          The early history of Vijayanagar is still shrouded in obscurity.  At first, five sons of Sangama of whom Harihara and Bukka were the most eminent laid the foundation of the city and the kingdom of Vijayanagar in the later 4^th century to early 5^th century A.D., with the able guidance of celebrated Bramhmin sage and scholar Madhava Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana who commented all the Vedic texts. 

          After over a long period, the great empire legally taken by Saluva chief Narasimha, whose ancestors were the faithful feudatories of Vijaya-nagara kings.  Thus the Sangama dynasty was overthrown by so called “First Upsurption” and later become Saluva Dynasty.

          Narasimha Saluva had the prudence to charge his trusted general, Narasa Nayaka who claimed descent from Tuluva dynasty.  Later, Vira Narasimha, son of Narasa Nayaka of Tuluva who died in 1505 A.D., deposed the last Saluva ruler and seized the throne for himself.  This “Second Upsurption” led to the direct rule of Tuluva dynasty over the Vijayanagar Empire.

            After Vira Narasimha, his younger brother Krishnadeva Raya the Great succeeded the throne of Vijayanagar.  He was the one of the most famous kings in the history of India.  A gallant and active warrior, he was always successful in the wars that he waged almost throughout his reign.  But he has also maintained friendly relationship with the other kings who were approached him in the same manner.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF TRAVANCORE SAMSTHAN

 

          The history of Modern Travancore starts with the king Martanda-Varman who ascended the throne in 1729 A.D.  Though he was not known to have write any work, he was certainly a generous patron of literature, and in his court flourished many of the scholars and poets of Kerala at that time.  Among them, the scholar poet Ramapanivada, Devaraja of Asramam and poet KrshnaSarman etc., were highly renowned.

          RamaPaniVada was a great scholar and prolific writer both in Sanskrit and in Prakrt. He has many credits by authoring several works of outstanding merit covering almost all branches of general literature.  His Vithi - street play named Candrika Vithi was written on the occasion of the Sivaratri festival at Triprangot temple.  Being patronised by Martanda-Varman the maker of Modern Travancore, he wrote a drama called SitaRaghavam.

                             

          The poet Devaraja was the author of a historical play titled Bala-Martanda-Vijayam in five acts which deals with the king’s dedication of the entire realm to Lord Sri Anantha Padmanabha of Trivandrum temple.

          Another protégé of the king MartandaVarman, poet KrshnaSarman was the author of Sri Padmanabha Carita Campu dealing with the story of the origin of the Lord Sri Anantha Padmanabha Svami Temple at the city Trivandrum.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF MANAVIKRAMA OF KOZHIKODE - Part II

    Among the nineteen poets patronized by the king ManaVikraman, Uddanda Sastri alias Uddanda Kavi has praised his patron the king ManaVikraman in his works KokilaSandesam - a lyrical poem  and the play  Mallika-Marutam.  Among those nineteen poets, Uddanda Kavi was little haughty and overbearing.

KokolaSandesam is modelled after Kalidasa’s MeghaSandesam.  In the kokilaSandesam, a message is sent through a bird Kokila (Cuckoo) by a lover from Kanchi in the Chingleput districts of the Madras Presidency to his sweetheart in Chendamangalam (Jayantamangalam).        

MallikaMarutam is an imitation of Bhavabhuti’s MalatiMadhavam in 10 acts and belongs to Prakarana type.  It describe the story of the love between Mallika, daughter of Visvavasu who is the minister of Vidyadhara king, and Maruta, the son of Brahmadatta who is the minister of the king of Kuntala.

Another scholar and a descendent of Payyur Bhattas, among the nineteen poets, was none another than Paramesvara I, who was the son of  Rsi I and Gauri.  He was a great scholar, critic and poet.  He has authored several works viz., Sumanoramani a commentary on MeghaSandesam, Jushadhvamkarani and Svaditankarani commentaries on Vacaspati-Misra’s NyayaKanika, HariCarita - a short poem in praise of Lord Vishnu and NyayaSamuccayam - a work on Mimamsa system.

This Paramesvara I had five sons: Rsi I, Bhavadasa II, Vasudeva I, Subrahmanya and Sankara.  They also like their father became renowned by their erudition in the Sastric and poetic field and ceaselessly passed over the same through their lineage.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF MANAVIKRAMA OF KOZHIKODE

          One of the most important centres of Sanskrit studies in Kerala during the middle ages was the court of the Zamorins of Kozhikode also known as Calicut.  There were many scholars and poets in that royal family who contributed substantially to Sanskrit literature; the number of scholars patronized by them is also very great.  Among these Zamorins of Kozhikode, ManaVikraman Saaktan Tampuran of 1427 A.D., was the earliest and the most outstanding.

          According to popular traditions there were nineteen poets as the Padinettaraik Kavigal or ‘the eighteen and a half poets’, in the court of ManaVikraman.  Of these Punam Nambutiri was called the ‘Half poet’, he was only a Malayalam poet, and not a recognized Sanskrit scholar.

          Among the nineteen poets, DamodaraBhatta who was patronized by the king ManaVikraman, was the author of VasumatiManaVikramam a play in seven acts.  It describesthe story of ManaVikraman’s marriage with Vasumati, daughter of his minister Mannaat Achan. 

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF KOLATTIRI ROYAL FAMILY

The Mushaka kingdom is narrated from legendary beginnings in a Sanskrit poem called MUSHAKAVAMSAM gives the history of the land till about the 12^th century A.D.  Later the kingdom came to be known as Kolattunadu and the kings as Kolattiris.

There was a Mushaka king by name Srikanta alias Rajadharman in 12 A.D., in the North region of Kerala.  The court poet Atula was patronized by him.  The poet Atula composed a historical Mahakavya by name MUSHAKAVAMSAM of which only 15 cantos are available now.  It starts with the story that once the warriors were slaughtered by Parasurama, a queen, whose husband was killed, escaped from her kingdom to the mountain Eli, being escorted by a priest, and hid herself in a cave there.  One day a rat as big as an elephant entered the cave and threatened to devour the queen, but was burned to ashes by the queen’s anger.  Then the rat appeared before her as Parvataraja, the king of mountain, and said that he was now saved from the curse of sage Kusika which had brought him to his previous plight.  Then the queen continued to live in the cave and brought forth a male child, who was the properly educated by the priest.  Being born in a cave of the Mushaka-mountain, and being consecrated with a potful of water by Parasurama, the prince came to be known as Mushaka Ramaghata.   

            In the 14^th century A.D., King Raghava came to power.  A court poet by name Divakara being patronized by him, composed a Mahakavyam titled AnargaRaghavaCampu on his patron. 

          In the beginning of 15^th century A.D., a royal prince of the Kola country named RamaVarman the elder brother of KeralaVarman.  After the death of RamaVarman, KeralaVarman, has ascended the throne.  RamaVarman has authored BharataSamgraham  a MahaKavyam dealing with the story of the Mahabharatam in 25 cantos, and a play, CandrikaKalapidam in 5 acts describing the story of the love between Candrika, the daughter of the king of Kalinga, and KandarpaSekhara, king of Kasi, culminating in their marriage.

          King KeralaVarman of Kolattunadu was a very great patron of letters.  He had in his court great scholars and poets like Raghava the commentator of YudhishthiraVijayam and his disciple Sankara the author of Mahakavyam  KrishnaVijayam in 12 cantos.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF MAHODAYAPURAM KULASEKHARAS

 

          In ancient Kerala there were several famous kings who called themselves Kulasekharas.  Their capital was Mahodayapuram at the mouth of the Periyar River, which may be identified with modern Tiruvancikulam in Cranganore.   Kulasekhara seems to have been a title assumed by the Kerala kings at the time of their coronation, for we know at least three Kulasekaharas whose proper names were different: Ravivarman Kulasekhara, patron of the famous astronomer Sankaranarayana, Ramavarman Kulasekhara, patron of the Yamaka poet Vasudeva, and Sri Kulasekhara Azhvar who may be considered as the author of Mukumdamala, are the most outstanding among them.

          1. Kulasekhara Azhvar, the Vaishnava saint was born as an incarnation of Vishnu’s Kaustubam.  According to Vaishnava tradition, Tiruvanchikkulam is birth place and 3075 B.C., is the year of birth of Kulasekhara Azhvar whose father was Drudavrata, king of Kerala. 

          After coming to throne, he conquered the Pandya and Cola kingdoms, and became the emperor of the whole South India.  He has written a short and sweet devotional poem Mukundamala in Sanskrit.  The language is quite simple and natural.  Owing to the great popularity of the poem, there are various recensions of the text, each different from others in the number of verses and in the arrangements.

          2. The royal dramatist Kulasekhara who belongs to 900 A.D., was the author of TapatiSamvaranam and SubhadraDhananjayam.  From the prologue of TapatiSamvaranam, it is clear that he was Emperor of Kerala, that he had his capital at Mahodayapuram or modern Tiruvancikulam.  TapatiSamvaranam is a drama with six Acts, describes the story of the love between Tapati, daughter of the Sun-god, and Samvarana, the king of Hastinapura.  The plot of the play is taken from Adiparva of Mahabharatam.

SubhadraDhananjayam describes, in five Acts, the well known story of Arjuna’s abduction of Subhadra, from Dvaraka.  The fame of Subhadra’s beauty attaracts Arjuna.

          3.  Ramavarman Kulasekhara who flourished by about 900 A.D., who had his capital at Mahodayapuram modern Tiruvancikulam was the patron of the Yamaaka Poet Vasudeva Kavi the author of YudhishthiraVijayam.

          The YudhishthiraVijayam describes the story of the Mahabharatam in eight cantos, called Asvasas or Uchvasas, containing about one thaousand verses, mostly in the Arya metres.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF KUMĀRADĀSA

          Some of the occupants of the throne were themselves scholars.  This can be understood by knowing the legacy of some royal people. One among such of them the author of JanakiHaranam is identified with King Kumaradasa of Cylon.  Kumaradasa also called Kumara Dhatusena was a king of Anuradhapura, Cylone in the 6^th Century A.D., whose reign lasted from 515 to 524.  He succeeded his father Moggallana I as king of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his son Kittisena.  

Jānakīharaṇam written by Kumāradāsa is one among the earlier Mahā-kāvyas in Sanskrit literature. It consists of 20 Cantos.  He was born blind and was helped in getting his kingdom and in writing this poem by his two maternal uncles.  The colophons of the manuscripts to each canto mention the Sinhalese nativity of the poet:- “Iti simhalakaveh Kumara-dasasya krtau Janakiharane mahakavye …… sargah”.   It is to be noted that the Trivandrum transcript has at the end of the poem a small verse in the form of phalaśruti which runs thus, “Janakiharanam slakshnam lakshanairupalkshitam, Ramayanasudhasaram asvadyam mukti-dayakam”.

          Alaṅkāra writers like Hemacandra (1089 to 1173 A.D.), and Bhoja (1010 TO 1055 A.D.) also quote from Kumāradāsa’s work.  Next comes the important author, Rājaśekhara of C. 900 A.D., who makes some references to Kumāradāsa.  In his Kāvyamīmāmsā he refers to the poet as born blind.  He has also left a verse on Kumāradāsa and his poem:- “Janakiharanam kartum Raghuvamse sthite sati, Kavih Kumaradasasca Ravanascayadi kshamah” means, “To have produced an Abduction of Sita, When the Dynasty of Raghu was present before him-“One must have been Kumāradāsa or else been Rāvaṇa”.  Though there are different opinions on the date of Kumāradāsa, many Sanskrit scholars accepted to assign Kumāradāsa here to the beginning of the 6^th Century.

Kumāradāsa was a great poet with innate literary talents.  He was quite at ease in handling chaste words of exquisite beauty.  His utterances suit the occasion even by their mere sound effect. 

In the art of description he has shown his compo-sing proficiency with high order.  His imaginations are so vivid and graphic.  He displays his skill in Sabdalankaras i.e., figurative poetry especially Yamakam (Chime)in canto 17.  The poem is written in an easy flowing style and shows unmistakable evidences of Kalidasa’s influence.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF PRATAPARUDRA

 

PratapaRudraDeva of Kakatiya dynasty ruled at Warangal region of Andhra Pradesh, in between 1268 to 1325 A.D.  The renowned poet Vidyanatha adorned his court.  He has composed an alankara (Rhetoric) work titled PratapaRudraYasoBhushanam with 3 chapters namely KavyaPrakaranam, RasaPrakaranam and NatakaPrakaranam. It also contains a drama called PraparudraKalyanam with 5 Acts for illustrating the rules of dramaturgy.  It describes the accession of prince PratapaRudra to the throne.

All the illustrations in this work are composed by the author himself exploiting the merits and exploits of ViraRudra or PratapaRudra who was his patron.  This work contains some historical information about ViraRudra and the Kakatiya dynasty.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF KAMADEVA

          The kings of Kaadambas were generally ruled the region called Vaijayanti or Banavasi in North Kanarese.  The early Kadambas supplanted the Chutu-Satakarnis of Vaijayanti.  According to the book  “An Advanced History of India”, the Kadamba capital was finally reduced by Pulikesin II, the son of KirtiVarman of Chalukyas. There was a king by name Kaamadeva of the Kaadamba dynasty of the South-West India in the 11^th Century A.D. (1182-97). 

A poet Kaviraja was patronized by him in his court.  Kaviraja was the son of KirtiNarayana, composed an interesting Dvisandhaana-Kavyam namely RaghavaPandaviyam in 13 cantos which narrates the stories of Sri Rama and the Pandavas simultaneously, with ‘Kamadeva’ as the mark.  The double purpose is achieved by the use of words having two meanings and splitting the compounds in two different ways.  It is said that artificiality in Sanskrit epic style reached its climax in this work.  The author’s justification for an attempt of this kind is clear from the following stanzas of the RafhavaPandaviyam:-

“SriRamayanManikyam BharataSvarnaMudritam

Na kasya kurute loke vismayollaasi maanasam  

SrimadRamayanam Ganga Bharatam Sagaro Mahaan

         That samyojana-kaaryajnau Kaviraja-Bhageerathau  ”

Moreover, the poet Kaviraja call himself a master of Vakrokti (one of the devise to test the literary merits like figures of speech) and places himself along with Bana and Subandhu who are masters of Vakrokti.

Kaviraja is the author of another poem ParijataHaranam in ten cantos describing Krishna’s bringing the celestial tree Parijatam down to earth.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF AVANTIVARMAN

 

          Among the kings of ancient Kashmir, AvantiVarman, who has established the Utpala dynasty in 855 A.D., was the most magnificent.  He has overthrown Karkotaka kings of Kashmir.  He was the patron of many renowned poets among them Ratnakara and Sivasvamin were praise worth.

          Ratnakara, being a protégé in the court of AvantiVarman composed a long major court epic titled Haravijayam in 50 cantos with 4000 slokas.  He had the titles Raajaanaka, Vageesvara, Vidyaadhipati.  The poem having the mark “ratna”, exhibits the author’s skill in Sabdalankara i.e., figurative poetry.  The poem is valuable for the information it contains on dancing.  The poem describes the slaying of Andhaka-Asura by the Lord Siva.  The description of love sports, gathering of armies and discussions of politics are all long and the style is harsh and over-worked.

          Another poet Sivasvamin, better known as Bhatta Sivasvamin, the contemporary of Ratnakara was a protégé of the same king Avanti-Varman. His poem titled Kappinabhyudayam in 20 cantos describes how a king of the south Kappina by name threatened to attack king Prasenajit of Sraavasti.  Later Kappina was converted into Buddhism.  The author avails himself of the opportunity to deal with the matters that require to be treated in a Mahakavyam.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF CHALUKYA KING

The early Chalukyas, sworn enemies of the Pallavas of Kanchi, rose to power in Karnataka of the Kanarese-speaking country in the 600 A.D. and had their first capital Vatapi, modern Badami in the Bijapur district of Bombay Presidency.

The real founder of the dynasty of Vatapi was Pulikesin I, who signalized his accession to power by the performance of the horse-sacrifice.  He has defeated the Pallava king Mahendra Varman I.  The Pallava king, Narasimha Varman I, son and successor of Maahendra  Varman I, retrieved the disasters of his father’s reign, inflicting crushing defeats on Pulikesin and destroying his capital Vatapi.

Then the Chalukya power was revived by Vikramaditya I, son of Pulikesin II, who renewed the struggle against his southern enemies.  His exploits were emulated and even surpassed by his great-grandson, Vikramaditya II also called Chalukya Vikramaditya or Vikramanka Deva, who actually entered the Pallava capital in the 11^th Century A.D. 

The renowned poet Bilhana adorned the court of Chalukya Vikramaditya.  Bilhana was born and educated in Kashmir but he came to the south and became a court poet Chalukya Vikramaditya of Kalyan. He has described the life of his patron Chalukya Vikramaditya in Vikramanka Deva Charitam with 17 cantos.  His account of King Vikramanka Deva and his predecessors was not completed.  In the last canto the poet gives an account of himself and his family.  There is more good poetry than history in this work.  Bilhana’s style is graceful and his descriptions are graphic.

Bilhana has also composed an interesting erotic poem titled ChauraPanchasika of about 50 verses describing the love sports enjoyed by the poet in the company of a beautiful princes with whom he had secret intimacy.  The charming verses are in the form of recollection of the pleasures he had enjoyed in the company of his beloved, by hearing which stricken by the compassion, the king ordered to release him. In the 19^th Century A.D., this work was translated into Tamil by BharatiDasan.

To the authorship of Bilhana, is attributed the Natika type of play titled Karnasundari dealing with the marriage of Kamadeva TrailokyaMalla of Anhilvad in his advanced age with Princess MiyanallDeviof Karnataka.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF MAHENDRA VARMAN

          Some of the occupants of the throne were themselves scholars and poets of no mean repute.  Among the royal authors like HarshaVardhana, SundaraPandya, BallalaSena etc., MahendraVarman of Kanchi also deserves Special mention as they left works that are studied even at the present day.

          In this respect, the MahendraVarman also called VicitraCitta= “curious-minded”, in the south, set examples that were initiated by some of the ablest among their successors.

          The MattavilasaPrahasanam was written by Mahendravarman, the Pallava king who was also called MahendraVikraman I in 600-630 A.D.  It is a variety of Prahasana among the ten types Dramas in Sanskrit.  In this Prahasana variety, in which comic element dominates.  Heritics, servants, libertines and degraded persons take part in it.  It is a farce depicting the degraded condition of life led by the adherents of Buddhism and of Kapalika and Pasupata sects of Saivism.  In this work the author describes the city life of Kanchi. Karpata is mentioned as the author of a manual for thieves and a hint to the story of the Kiratarjuniyam of Bharavi are found in this work.

          Dandin the famous poet was patronized by this king Mahendra-Varman in his court.  He was author of many and different genres in Sanskrit literature.  His Gadya Kavyam titled DasaKumaraCaritam is a prose work of considerable merit.  The simple style and the political divisions of India mentioned in it suggest that the work could not have been later than the 7^th century A.D.  Dandin is famous for his simple and graceful style – “Dandinah padalaalityam” is popular saying.

          He is also the author of an Alankara work called Kavyadarsa.  Tradition attributes three works to Dandin “Trayo dandi- prabandhaasca trishu lokeshu visrutaah”.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF SUNDARAPANDYA

     

      Sundarapandya also called SundaraPandyadeva ruled the Madurai in Tamil Nadu region in the 500 A.D.  He was the author of the didactic poetry titled “NitiDviShashtika”. 

According to historians, this NitiDvi-Shashtika of 116 verses in the Arya metre composed by SundaraPandya of Madurai, was the earliest work of didactic literature about which some definite information is available.

          Janasraya of 600 A.D., quotes from this work on his Chando-viciti and the great Mimamsaka KumarilaBhatta  of 650 A.D., quotes from other lost works of SundaraPandya.  Therefore his date can be fixed about 500 A.D.  Sankaracarya cite Sundarapandya’s passage but the texts from which they must have been taken are now lost.

          Though many SundaraPandyas are known to South Indian history, the Simmanur inscription of 750 A.D., mentions one sundaraPandya as proficient in all Sanstras that “Samasta saastrarnavaKarnadharo yadudbhavah SundaraPandyaNaamaa”.  He was said to have been an ancestor of Arikesarin and was assigned to about 650 A.D.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF VEMABHUPALA

VemaBhupala also called Peddakomati VemaBhupala ruled the mandala called Addanki in Andhra region in the 1403-1420 A.D.  There many poets were patronised by him.  Among them there was a renowned poet by name Vamana-Bhatta Bana who contributed to the Sanskrit literature through his different genres.

Vamanabhattabana was the son of Kotiyajvan and Ommayi and his grandfather was Varadagnichit belonging to the first half of the 15^th Century A.D.  He has written two mahakavyas namely 1. Nalabhyudaya with eight cantos and 2. RaghuviraCharitam with thirty cantos; and four plays namely 1. Kanaklekha Kalyanam with four acts a Natika, 2. SrngaraBhushana-Bana with one act, 3. ParvatiParinayam with five acts and 4.BanasuraVijayam with five acts; one lyric or KhandaKavya HamsaSandesam one aakhyaayika type GadyaKavya titled Veera-NarayanaCharitam or VemaBhupalaCharitam a historical prose romance with four Chapters and two lexico-graphical works namely         1. SabdaCandrika and SabdaRatnakara. 

VamanaBhattaBana described the life of his patron, the king Vemabhupala.  It is in imitation of Kalidasa’s Raaghuvamsam and AbhijnaanaSakuntalam.  Bana’s influence is found at every stage.  The author claims a rank by following the style of Subandhu, Bana, and KaviRaja.

History professors Dr.R.C. Majumdar, Dr. H.C.Raychudhuri and Dr. Kalikinkar Datta mentioned combine that ‘conditions under Turko-Afgans, the period was not entirely barren of important compositions in Sanskrit, religious as well as secular.  The more important plays of the time were HammiraMadaMardana by JayaSinghSuri, PratapaRudraKalyanam by Vidyanatha and ParvatiParinaya of VamanaBhattaBana were composed in Sanskrit.

SANSKRIT IN THE REIGN OF LAKSHMANASENA OF BENGAL

     In the early 1026 A.D a king of Sena sect, by name SaamanthaSena overthrown in Bengal and established a principality in Western Bengal.  After him came HemanthaSena. VijayaSena, son of HemanthaSena, founded the sovereignty by vanquishing kings of Gaudas, Paalas and the neighbouring princes of North Bihar, Assam and Oriss.  He has laid the foundation of a city VijayaPuram in Western Bengal and a city VikaramaPuram in Eastern Bengal.

The son and successor of VijayaSena was BallaalaSena, a name famous in Bengali legend as the reputed founder of Kulinism, a system of nobility.  He was also credited with the authorship of two notable Sanskrit works, the DaanaSaagarah and the AdbhutaSaagarah.

King LakshmanaSena, son of BallaataSena ruled the Bengal dynasty in 1169 A.D.  On coming to the throne, LakshmanaSena distinguished himself as a conqueror and a patron of learning.  Among the six renowned poets who graced his court namely Umapatidhara, Jayadeva, Sarana, Govardhana, Sruthidhara, and Dhoyi.  The most eminent were Jayadeva, the author of GitaGovindam and Dhoyi, the author of the PavanaDutam.

Jayadeva was the author of lyric GitaGovindam in twelve cantos.   Gitagovindam also known as Ashtapadi forms a blend of lyrical and musical elements. Though there are 3 characters namely Krishna, Radha and a friend of Radha. There is no dialogue in the poem. We have only monologues in the poem addressed by one of the characters to a silent listener. Each canto begins and ends with some stanzas in the usual classical metre and the portions, which are in the form of songs set to prescribed tunes, are introduced between them. These songs are generally composed of 8 musical lines and each song is known as Ashtapadi.   The book on the whole consists of 12 chapters or 24 Ashtapadis. The work describes the love of Krishna and Radha and depicts its various stages like the yearning, expectancy, disappointment, estrangement and reconciliation ending in ultimate joy of their union. The book has always been popular on account of the blending of literary, devotional, musical and mystic elements in it. The book has been commented on by many scholars in our country and translated into English by Edwin Arnold. Like Kalidasa’s ‘maoGadUtma\’ (Meghadhootam) among the erotic lyrics, the ‘gaItgaaoivandma\’ has given rise to number of such compositions. Many poets of the later ages wrote on the same model.

          Dhoyi was another eminent poet in the court of the king LakshmanaSena.  He wrote Pavanadutam describing the love message sent to king LakshmanaSena by a Gandharva maiden Kuvalayavati.  It contains 104 stanzas.  It describes a city called Yayatinagari on the bank of the river Mahanadi.  It contains an interesting description of the Sena capital.

           Rai-Lakhmaniya usally mentioned and identified with LakshmanaSena in the history that he had to flee from Nadia possibly to Eastern Bengal, to a place near Dacca  where the Sena power survived for more than a half century, before the advancing arms of Malik Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad Khaliji towards the close of the 12^th  or early in the 13^th century. Like his father Ballaala Sena, LakshmanaSena was also known for his lavish generosity.