महाकवि-भवभूतिकृत-रूपकाणि - Plays of Bhavabhuti

 

       Bhavabhuti, a protégé of King Yasovarman and elder contemporary of Vakpati, is the author of three plays Mahaviracaritam, Malatimadhavam and UttaraRamacaritam. From the prologues of these plays it is learnt that his name was Srikantha and that he got the title Bhavabhuti out of devotion of Siva. He was a native of Padmapura in the Vidarbha country. He was the son of Nilakantha and Jatukarni and the grandson of BhattaGopala. He was of Kashyapa Gotra and belonged to the Taittiriya branch of the Krishna YajurVeda. He was deeply learned in rhetoric, Upanishads, Sankhya, Yoga, Vedanta and ritualistic lore. His preceptor was one J`nanaNidhi.

महावीरचरितम्  Mahaviracaritam:

       The Mahaviracaritam in seven acts is the first play of Bhavabhuti. It deals with the life of Rama from his marriage with Sita till his coronation. Ravana sends an envoy to Janaka seeking the hand of Sita. But he is disappointed by Rama’s marriage with Sita. At the instigation of his minister Malyavan, Surpanakha appears in Mithila in the guise of Manthara, the servant of Kaikeyi, demanding Rama’s exile to the forest and Valin attacks Rama who steps into Kishkindha. The wordy duel between Rama and Parasurama is unduly long and mars the effect of the play. It is held that the drama, which Bhavabhuti wrote up to the sloka 46 Act IV, was continued by one Subrahmanya. No reason is however advanced to show what made Bhavabhuti stop abruptly in Act IV.

मालतीमाधवम् - Malatimadhavam:

        The Malatimadhavam is a Prakarana in ten acts depicting the course of love between Madhava and Malati, respectively son and daughter of the ministers in two different countries. The two ministers are thick friends. Side by side is depicted the growth of love between Makaranda and Madayantika, friends of Madhava and Malati. There are many beautiful but detached scenes. Makaranda dresses himself in the garb of a woman and marries one Nandana who was promised the hand of Malati. He saves Madayantika from the attack of a tiger which incident creates love in them. Malati was twice kidnapped by a Kapalika woman to be offered to the deity but was saved by Madhava on the first occasion and on the second by an associate of Kamandaki a Buddhist nun who took interest in the welfare of Malati and Madhava and helped in getting them married.

उत्तररामचरितम् - UttaraRamacaritam:

        In the seven acts of the Uttararamacaritam, Bhavabhuti depicts the story of of the UttaraKanda of the Ramayana. He was influenced by the Kundamala of Dinn`aga, Act II of the Abhijn`anasakuntalam and Venisamhara. The reunion of the lovers is effected by the introduction of a small scene (antarnatika) of the epic story. This play is more a dramatic poem than a drama proper.

        Bhavabhuti’s outlook of life is very serious. That is why he has made the love Rama and Sita and of Malati and Madhava appeal more directly with a realistic touch than that of Dushyanta and Sakuntala. Therefore his plays have no place for humour and consequently Vidushaka character is not found in any of his plays. Self-effacement and self-sacrifice characterised his outlook on  life and therefore the same is found reflected in his characters.

Heroism dominates the Mahaviracaritam, love the Malatimadhavam and pathos the Uttararamacaritam. The second mentioned is the only where all other sentiments have their due place. Bhavabhuti was earliest dramatist to give prominence to the Karuna rasa in a drama. It is even said that he has excelled not only others but his own self in this play.

‘kaÉNyaM BavaBaUitrova tnauto’.

‘]<aro ramacairto BavaBaUitiva-iSaYyato’.

Bhavabhuti seems to suggest a synthesis of the setiments culminating in Karuna.

कालिदासकृतरूपकाणि - Plays of Kalidasa

         Kalidassa is the author of three plays namely ‘maalaivakaignaima~ma\’ ‘ivaËmaaova-SaIyama\’ ‘AiBa&anaSaakuntlama\’.     

maalaivakaignaima~ma\ (Malavikagnimitram):

Malavikagnimitram is a drama in five acts. It deals with the love of ‘Aignaima~’ for a princess called Malavika. It may be considered to be an historical play as contemporaneous events like the horse sacrifice performed by Pushyamitra, feud between ‘ya&saona:’ and ‘maaQavasaona:’ and Agnimitra’s intervention are referred to. Though love is the dominant sentiment of this play Kalidasa has handled the Vidushaka character beautifully that humour also stands on par with love.

ivaËmaaova-SaIyama\ (Vikramorvasiyam):

Vikramorvasiyam is a drama in five acts. It depicts the love of King ‘pu$rvasa\’ for the celestial nymph ‘]va-SaI’ (Urvasi). The source of this play could be traced to the ‘?gvaod’ ‘ivaYNaupuraNama\’ ‘pd\mapuraNama\’ and ‘Mma%syapuraNama\’. Kalidasa has introduced several changes in this play. Act IV of this play is a lyrical monologue describing pu$rvasa\ as a madman searching for ]va-SaI in the mountainous region.

AiBa&anaSaakuntlama\ (Abhij`nanasakuntalam):

Abhij`nanasakuntalam is drama in seven acts depicting the love of ‘duYyant:’ and ‘Sakuntlaa’. The episode ‘Sakuntlaaopa#yaanama\’ in the Mahabharatam is the basis for this play. By introducing the ring of Dushyanta and the curse of Durvasas, Kalidasa has changed the course of the play in an altogether different direction. Since the loss of the ring given by the hero to the heroine as a token of remembrance ³AiBa&anama\´ plays a leading part in ennobling the characters of the hero and heroine, the play came to be called as ‘AiBa&anaSaakuntlama\’. There is not a scene in the play, which is devoid of charm and attraction. It used to be said that the IV act of the play is most attractive.

‘kavyaoYau naaTkM rmyaM t~ rmyaa Sakuntlaa.t~aip ca catuqaao-=\k: t~ SlaaokcatuYTyama\..

Kalidasa’s style in the dramas is easy flowing, chaste and elegant. It is absolutely free from elaborate and laboured constructions. Words are chosen in large numbers from common usage. The dialogues in the dramas are short and simple.

BHASA'S 13 PLAYS

 

Dramas of Bhasa (Based on Ramayanam)

1. प्रतिमानाटकम् – represents the story of Rama from the preparation for his coronation by Dasaratha, upto his coronation after 14 years of his life in forest. This is a seven act play with Bhasa’s innovative ideas like introducing प्रतिमा – statue, while bringing Bharata to Ayodhya. This drama begins with killing of Vali and ends with Rama’s coronation – पट्टाभिषेकम् । Rama is the hero and this drama   is written in seven Acts.

2. अभिषेकनाटकम् – This drama is based on how “पट्टाभिषेकं” is performed for Rama after defeating Ravana in battle and it is written in six Acts.

Dramas of Bhasa (Based on Mahabharatam)

1. दूतवाक्यम् -Duta Vakyam – is a one Act play based on Mahabharata story. Sri    Krishna is the hero. Bhasa explains in brief in this Drama about how Krishna goes as a Messenger to Kauravas.

2. दूतघटोत्कचम् - Duta Ghatotkacham: This is a one act play based on          Mahabharatam. Ghatotkacha, son of Bhima is the hero and this drama        explains how Ghatotkacha goes as a messenger to meet Kauravas.

3. कर्णभारम् - Karna Bharam: This is a one act play based on Mahabhratam.    Bhasa explains how Karna is feeling emotional while taking part in the war     with Pandavas. Indra receiving armor and ear rings from Karna is highlighted here.

4. ऊरुभङ्गम् - Urubhangam: This is a one act play based on Mahabhratam. Bhima is the hero of this Drama. Bhasa explains how Bhima shows revenge on Duryodhana by breaking his thigh for fulfilling Draupadi’s promise.

5.  मध्यमव्यायोगः - Madhyama Vyayoga – This is a one act play of Bhasa based on Mahabharatam. Bhasa introduces his imagination on how Ghatotkacha – son of Hidimba meets with his father Bhima and their family reunites after an interesting happening is the story of this play. Here Bhima himself is          attempting to reveal his identity to his own son Ghatotkacha by involving in a playful fight with him.

6. पञ्चरात्रम् - Pancha Ratram – written in 3 acts, author Bhasa describes how Dronacharya helps Pandavas to get half of their Kingdom. Duryodhana performs a Yajna and requests his Guru Dronacharya to get Dakshina. When Dronacharya demands half of the Kingdom to Pandavas, Duryodhana replies that he should be able to find the Pandavas in five nights. Through a battle in which Duryodhana was defeated by Pandavas, Dronacharya’s wish is fulfilled as he found them. Based on five nights spent by Pandavas in forest, this drama is written.

Dramas of Bhasa (Based on imagination)

 1. स्वप्नवासवदत्तम् – A six act play – King Udayana’s marriage is arranged in secrecy by his minister यौगन्धरायणः & पद्मावती ।  काल्पनिकी कथा – an imaginery tale chosen by author himself.         

2. प्रतिज्ञायौगन्धरायणम् – A four act play. Minister of Udayana यौगन्धरायणः helps the king to escape from the prison of वासवदत्ता’s father – King of Ujjain.

3. चारुदत्तम् – A four act play. A love story of a poor Brahmin चारुदत्तः with court dancer वसन्तसेना ।

4. अविमारकम् - A six act play depicts the devine love of अविमारकः & कुरङ्गी l

Dramas of Bhasa (Based on Bhagavatam)

 

1. बालचरितम् - This is a one act play based on Sri Vyasa’s Srimad          Bhagavata Puranam. In this drama author Bhasa beautifully describes the birth, childhood plays of Sri Krishna. Bhakti sentiment is highlighted beautifully in this drama with beautiful verses.

THE AUTHORSHIP OF BHASA OVER THE THIRTEEN TRIVANDRUM PLAYS OR BHASA PROBLEM

                                                         
       Bhasa is one of the predecessors of Kalidasa.  Kalidasa mentions his name in the prologue of his drama Malavikagnimitram as an established and popular dramatist in the following words: ‘Baasakivapu~saaOimallaadInaaM p`iqatyaSasaama\’. Bhasa is known to have written a number of dramas. However, till recently, Bhasa was only a name and his plays were lost. The works on rhetorics contained some information about his works. In 1911, some manuscripts were discovered by a great scholar by name Mahamahopadhyaya Ganapati Sastrin. They were thirteen in number in the same bundle and bore some mutual likenesses. Ganapati Sastrin edited them and attributed all of them to the authorship of Bhasa.

His arguments in support of Bhasa’s authorship can be summed up as follows:

(1)   All these plays begin with the arrival ‘saU~Qaar:’ (Stage-Manager/Stage-Director)on the stage and then ‘naandI’ (Benediction in the plays) is recited. This is quite a peculiar feature not found in the dramas of other writers. In the HarshaCaritam, Bana uses the words ‘saU~QaarÌtarmBaO: naaTkO:’ while referring to Bhasa, supporting this trait found in these plays.

(2)    The prologue is called ‘sqaapnaa’ in these plays while the other well-known plays have the word ‘p`stavanaa’ or ‘AamauKma\’ to refer to it.

(3)    The prologues do not contain any reference to the name of the author and of the work, thereby showing that these plays belong to pre-classical period.

(4)   In most of these plays, the same expressions occur in the prologue: ‘evamaaya-imaEaana\ iva&apyaaima.Ayao ikM nau Klau iva&apnavyaga`o Sabd [va EaUyato.

(5)   The Nandi verse contains the names of the characters in the play concerned thus having the Mudralankara.

(6)   The ‘Bartvaa@yama\’ (Epilogue - the conclusion of the plays) in most of these plays ends with the prayer ‘rajaisaMh: p`Saastu na:’.

(7)   These plays contain a number of expressions which are incorrect in the light of Panini’s grammar, e.g., ‘AapRcCaima’ ‘]plaPsyait’ ‘d`xyato’ ‘rxato’ ‘kaiSara&:’ ‘sava-ra&:’ ‘AlaM ktu-M’ etc. On the strength of these similarities found in common among these plays, the learned scholar Ganapati Sastri attributed them to the same author.

Soon after the publication of these plays called Thirteen Trivandrum plays, a host of scholars began to oppose the conclusion arrived at by Ganapati Sastri. They held that these plays are only the stage scripts of Cakyars. They are trained actors in Kerala. But one important thing must be kept in the mind while discussing this problem. From the references made by Rajasekhara it is known that Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadatta - ‘svaPnavaasavad<ama\’ stood the test of fire when a critical examination was conducted for the plays of Bhasa.  ‘BaasanaaTkcaËo|ip CokO: ixaPto prIixatuma\. svaPnavaasavad<asya dahkao|BaUnna pavak:..’

Bana also pays a glowing tribute to Bhasa and his Svapnavasavadatta. Many of the verses found in the plays of Bhasa are quoted by famous rhetoricians. On the basis of these references we are certain that there was a dramatist by name Bhasa who was also a predecessor of Kalidasa. A careful study of the thirteen plays would show that all these plays must have been written by a single author. Hence the modern research has accepted all these plays as plays of Bhasa.

TYPES OF SANSKRIT DRAMAS

 

         Dramatic compositions are called Drisya Kavya, since they are meant to be seen on the stage as differentiated from the epic and other varieties called Sravya Kavya which are only meant to be heard and enjoyed. They are also called Rupakas since the ideas and sentiments are visibly represented in the person of the actors.

            The standard works on dramaturgy recognize ten different types of drama called Rupakas and ten minor types called the Uparupakas. The ten Major varieties are named as the Nataka, Prakarana, Bhana, Prahasana, Dima, Vyayoga, Samavakara, Vithi, Anka and Ihamrga, each differing from the others in the nature of the plot, the hero and the major sentiment depicted.

                   ‘naaTkM sap`krNaM BaaNa: p`hsanaM iDma:.vyaayaaogasamavaakaraO vaIqya|\kohamaRgaa dSa..’

          The principal variety of the drama is called Nataka and so the term is often used to signify all dramatic compositions in general. It consists of five to ten acts and deals with the well-known (Prakhyata) story of a hero of royal descent. The predominant sentiment is Sringara, Vira or Karuna, with other Rasas being used as accessory ones. Prakarana is a play in ten acts dealing with a fictitious story about a hero who may be a Brahmin or a merchant but not a King, and heroine who may be anyone including a courtesan and love is the major sentiment. The Bhana is a one act play, in the form of a monologue, with only one character with a rogue as its hero and with love or heroism as the chief sentiment. The Prahasana is a comic farce in one act, with many characters depicting the sentiment of Hasya. The Dima is a type of drama,  in four acts, which deals with well-known supernatural events and miracles. Any sentiment other than the Sringara and Hasya may be depicted and the characters will consist of gods, demigods, demons and Nagas. The other types of drama have been similarly defined on the basis of the plot, the hero, the sentiment and the number of acts peculiar to each. The Natika and the Sattaka are two among the many varieties of minor types called Uparupakas.

            The definitions of the Rupaka and Uparupaka types must have been based on the dramatic compositions available then. Of these, the Nataka, Prakarana, Bhana and the Natika have been more popular than other types. Even here, the Nataka has been the only kind that attracted the audience and the critics. This is evident from the largest number of plays belonging to the Nataka type and the few plays representing the other types. 

THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF SANSKRIT DRAMAS

 

The dramatic representation ³naaT\yama\´ consists in the imitation of a condition or a state in life ‘AvasqaanauÌit: naaTyama\’ or of an occurrence happening in the world ‘laaokvaR<aanaukrNaM naaTyama\’. The purpose of such representation is set forth thus in Bharata’s NatyaSastra:

‘]<amaaQamamaQyamaanaaM naraNaaM kma-saMEayama\.      ihtaopdoSajananaM QaRitËIDasauKaidÌt\॥

du:Kaqaa-naaM Eamaaqaa-naaM Saaokata-naaM tpisvanaama\. ivaEaaintjananaM laaoko naaT\yamaptnmayaa Ìtma\ ॥

The dramatic representation is to be based on the activities of people of three types – high, middle and low. It must give people good instruction and provide them with cheer, pastime and pleasure. It must afford rest and diversion at the proper hour to those who are afflicted with misery and grief. All these show that the Sanskrit drama is based on actual life and has a realistic touch. When it is mentioned by Bharata that the dramatic representation is intended   to give good advice to people, to provide them with diversion, sports etc. it is suggested that people who witness a dramatic performance are to enjoy it. The individual who witnesses the drama has therefore an emotion aroused in him reaching to aesthetic pleasure.

            The theme ³[itvaR<ama\´ of a play may be based on the traditional source, on the imagination of the dramatist and on an admixture of both. The Epics and Upakhyanas have supplied much material for the dramatists. The Abhij`nanasakuntalam, Vikramorvasiyam, Venisamharam and others illustrate this. Malatimadhavam and Mrcchakatikam are social dramas. Mudrarakshasa is a political drama.

            Next to the plot, the characters come to occupy importance in the Sanskrit dramas. The division of the characters into male and female and into high, middle and low imparts reality to the plays. The heroes are of four types viz., Dhirodatta - ‘QaIraoda<a:’ Dhiroddhata - ‘QaIraowt:’ Dhiralalita - ‘QaIrlailat:’ Dhirasanta - ‘QaIrSaant:’. While heroism and fortitude are common to all, sublimity, amorous gaity, tranquillity and boisterousness are respectively their distinctive features. As lovers, they are of four types viz., Anukta, Dakshina, Dhrshta and Satha. Next to the hero, the Vidushaka plays a useful part in the drama. He is a Brahmin, foolish and is depicted as a minister of love affairs. He talks in Prakrtam. Among the women characters, the heroine occupies an important place. All women characters speak in Prakrtam.

            Next to the plot or Vastu and Neta or hero, Rasa or sentiment plays an important role in Sanskrit dramas. The sentiment of love is the subject of most of the Indian dramas and we very often find the repetition of the same dramatic motif and sometimes of the same dramatic situations in many plays. But the Indian dramatist is rarely excelled in the masterly manner in which he describes the intricate working of the lover’s heart. Rasa or sentiments are nine in number.

‘EaR=\gaarhasyakÉNaa raOd`vaIrBayaanaka:. baIBa%saad\BautSaantaSca rsaa: PaUvaO-Éda)ta:॥’

Sringara or the erotic, Vira or the heroic, Karuna or the pathos, Hasya or the comic, Raudra or the furious, Bhayanaka or the frightful, Bhibatsa or the loathsome, Adbhuta or the wonderful and Santa or the trsnquil are the nine rasas.Four different kinds of dramatic styles are prescribed in works of dramaturgy to suit the various sentiments and they are called Kaisiki, Arabhati,Satvati and Bharati. 

 

            A drama begins generally with a benediction called Nandi - ‘naandI’. The recitation of this marks the end of the observance of certain preliminary ceremonies called Purvaranga performed behind the curtain. The stage manager called Sutradhara enters the stage after Nandi is recited. In some plays he enters the stage and recites it. He then engages himself in a talk with his wife, Vidushaka or friend and makes references to the title and author of the drama. He leaves the stage with his members after announcing the arrival of a character on the stage. This portion is called Prastavana, Amuka or Sthapana. The scenes involving the presentation of death, fight etc. and those difficult and unnecessary in the context are avoided and the information about them is conveyed through five devices viz., Vishkambaka, Pravwsaka, Culika, Ankavatara and Ankasya. The first two are in the form of conversation between two or more characters. The first one is pure (Shuddha) when middle characters speaking Sanskrit take part and is mixed when low characters also speaking Prakrtam take part. The second device, which is not to be allowed in the first act of the play, is only in Prakrtam. The low characters take part in it. The Culika connects any two acts through a speech made behind the curtain. The Ankavatara is indicated by the absence of the characters at the beginning of an act thus showing it to be in continuation of the previous one. The Ankasya makes a reference to what follows in the succeeding act through the characters of the previous act.

            The Sanskrit drama does not observe the unities of time and place in the western sense. Some plays, for instance, Sakuntala cover the incident of several years. The scene of action also changes very radically sometimes from earth to heaven. The unity of action too is not observed in the strict Aristotelian sense that only one central action is to be depicted; for two or even three parallel plots are interwoven in the same play occasionally. Thus in many respects the Sanskrit drama bears greater resemblance to the Elizabethan plays than to the Greek comedy.

THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF THE SANSKRIT DRAMAS - PART II

3. Greek Influence:

        Hellenism in Hindu culture has been for a long time favourite theme of discussion among the scholars of the East and West. Prof.Weber suggested that a certain influence might have been exerted from the Greek on the Sanskrit drama. The term ‘yavainaka’ or ‘javainaka’ meaning screen is according to him – resemblance to Ionian counterpart. It also suggests the importation of the curtain from the Greek drama along with some other material. This theory of Prof.Weber has been exploded long ago.

First of all there is a great difference between the two civilisations. Regarding the actual presentation, at the courts of Greek Princes in India, of dramatic entertainments, the evidence is very scarce. The Sanskrit drama had only an indigenous origin. It had begun to be cultivated from the 8^th Century B.C. and passed into lethargy by about 400 A.D. there is no historical evidence , which proves the relationship between the Greeks and the Hindus prior to Alexander’s invasion. Modern critics classify dramas as classical and romantic. The Greek tragedy belongs to the classical type whereas the Sanskrit dramas, by universal consent are admitted to be romantic. Had there been Greek influence on Sanskrit dramas why should the copy be so different from the original? In fact they belong to two opposite schools. The word ‘yavainaka’ or ‘javainaka’ has no special application to the curtain of the theatre. The argument that the ‘yavaina’s (Greek maidens) represented as the bodyguards of Indian Kings need not necessarily point to Hellenic impact for, the practice probably represents the fond of Indian Princes for the fascinating Greek damsels and the readiness of the Greek traders to make high profits by shipping these youthful cargos.

All the theories of Western Scholars are obviously advanced at random to dishonour the capabilities of ancient Indians and the national tendencies of their time-honoured institutions. Thus the indigenous origin of Sanskrit Dramas cannot be denied and discounted.

Indian tradition attributes divine origin to the Sanskrit Drama. At the request of the gods who desired to have something which would delight both the ears and eyes of all the created beings, the creator composed the Natyaveda taking the element of recitationfrom the RgVeda, song from the SamaVeda, gestures from the YajurVeda and sentiment from the AtharvaVeda, Shiva and Parvati contributed to the part of dance, the former giving his Tandava and the latter her Lasya. Vishnu brought forth the four dramatic styles called ‘kOiSakI’ ‘saa%vatI’ ‘BaartI’ ‘AarBaTI’. Sage Bharata was authorised to transfer it to the world and make it popular which he accordingly. This Natyaveda came to be also called the ‘Fifth Veda’.